The potential of terrestrial based protected areas for conservation of freshwater biodiversity

 

Introduction

Protected areas are clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed through legal or other effective means to achieve the long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values as defined by Dudley (2008). Terrestrial protected areas have always gained more consideration in the designation of protected areas than freshwater protected areas (Abell et al., 2007). As of year 2008, there exist over 120,000 recognized terrestrial protected areas worldwide, but only few were for freshwater conservation as reported by United Nations Environment Programme – World Conservation Monitoring Centre (2008). Most research on biodiversity concentrated on the terrestrial realm determining changes in terrestrial biodiversity. Some studies that considered freshwater biodiversity, reports that freshwater species exhibited changes over the time (Heino et al., 2008). Many of the terrestrial protected areas around the globe include freshwater components; however the contribution of terrestrial protected areas to conservation of freshwater biodiversity is unclear. Therefore it is essential to explore the potential of terrestrial protected areas in the conservation of freshwater biodiversity.

Freshwater biodiversity

The variety of life form and the ecosystems that make up the freshwater regions around the world is termed freshwater biodiversity. Freshwater biodiversity consists of freshwater ecosystems, including lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers, streams, groundwater and wetlands as per Wangchuck Centennial Park (WCP), University of Calcutta (UoC), and WWF Bhutan (2012). Freshwater encompasses only 0.01% of the world’s water covering only 0.8% of earth’s surface area. Out of the estimated 1.8 million described species globally, freshwater support at least 100, species estimated to 6% of the total (Balian et al., 2008). A study on freshwater biodiversity in Eastern Himalaya by the IUCN (2010) reveals the region as home to significant number of species dependent on freshwater habitats (Allen et al., 2010). The study pointed that out of 1,073 species recorded, 77 species are globally threatened. However, the knowledge on freshwater biodiversity in the world is deficient particularly for invertebrates and microbes. Even vertebrates are only partially known (Stiassny, 2002).   

State of freshwater biodiversity

Freshwater biodiversities are under severe pressure from human and the rich biodiversity are diminishing rapidly (Vorosmarty et al., 2010). Worldwide change has affected biodiversity in terrestrial, marine and freshwater dominion. The future is not bright for biodiversity in natural ecosystems as reported by Thomas et al. (2004). It is suggested that decline in freshwater biodiversity to be rapid as compared to or even will exceed the estimated rate. It has been predicted that the extinction rate of freshwater species to be almost five times greater than  terrestrial species and three times that of coastal marine species (Ricciardi & Rasmussen, 1999). 

Threats to freshwater biodiversity

The threats to freshwater biodiversity around are described in five broad categories in many studies till date as reported by Dudgeon, et al. (2005). Overexploitation, water pollution, flow modification, destruction or habitat degradation and invasion by exotic species are the threats to freshwater biodiversity. Overexploitation affects vertebrates while other threats affect all freshwater diversity ranging from microbes to megafauna. The collective influences of the five threat classes resulted in decline in population and range reduction of freshwater biodiversity (Dudgeon, et al., 2005).

Terrestrial protected areas and its potential for conservation of freshwater biodiversity

Terrestrial protected areas are areas dedicated to protection and conservation of natural biodiversity through legal and other effective mechanism as described by International Union for Conservation of Nature (1994). The areas often cover inaccessible high elevation regions usually targeting conservation of large mammals and birds. Some protected areas are designated in upstream catchment where conservation of freshwater biodiversity is not a priority (Abraham and Kelkar, 2012). Such protected areas with partial coverage of riverine habitats and with no intention of freshwater biodiversity conservation may not be adequate for conservation of freshwater biodiversity.

Although the terrestrial protected areas are established for conservation of terrestrial features, protected areas cover majority of ecoregions and consequently have potential to represent freshwater diversity at a large scale. In addition, the protected areas are managed primarily for conservation of natural resources therefore has the potential to serve the conservation of freshwater biodiversity (Lawrence et al., 2011).

Protected areas in Bhutan and its implications on freshwater biodiversity

In Bhutan, 51.44 % of the total land area is under protected areas, biological corridors and conservation areas (Gross National Happiness Commission, 2013). Protected areas in the country cover almost all 20 districts, from north to south and represents wide aspects of biodiversity. The protected areas include tremendous amount of inland freshwater biodiversity including glaciers, rivers, streams and lakes (RSPN, 2014). The Forest and Nature Conservation Act, 1995 and the Forest and Nature Conservation Rules of Bhutan, 2006 restrict any activities related to destruction and disturbance to the natural ecosystems within protected areas.  Therefore, although not meant for the conservation of freshwater biodiversity, the protected areas have immense potential in conservation of freshwater biodiversity.       

Conclusion

A study by Abraham and Kelkar (2012) states that, threats to freshwater biodiversity was significantly higher in unprotected areas than protected areas. It also reveals that protected areas were consistently higher in both species richness and species diversity than unprotected areas. In a similar study by Atkore et al. (2011) reports higher species richness in protected areas. Therefore, it is evident that the terrestrial protected areas have high potential for conservation of freshwater biodiversity have important role in conserving freshwater biodiversity.

Freshwater biodiversity make up valuable natural resources in economic, cultural, aesthetic, scientific and education. Conservation and management of freshwater biodiversity is of immense importance. The managers need to be more aware and knowledgeable to further strengthen existing level of freshwater biodiversity conservation (Nel et al., 2007).

References

Abell, R., Allan, J. D., & Lehner, B. (2007). Unlocking the potential of protected areas for freshwaters. Biological Conservation 134(1), 48.

Abraham, R. K., & Kelkar, N. (2012). Do terrestrial protected areas conserve freshwater fish diversity? Results from the Western Ghats of India. Oryx, 46, pp 544-553 doi:10.1017/S0030605311000937.

Allen, D. J., et al. (2010). The status and distribution of freshwater biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas. Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, and Coimbatore, India: Zoo Outreach Organisation.

Atkore, S. V., & Johnsingh, A. (2011). Patterns of diversity and conservation status of freshwater fishes in the tributaries of the river Ramganga in the Shiwaliks of the western Himalayas. Current Science, 100, 731–736.

Balian, E. V., Segers, H., Leveque, C., & Martens, K. (2008). An introduction to the Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment. (FADA) project. Hydrobiologia 595, 3–8.

Dudgeon, D., Arthington, A. H., Gassner, M. O., Kawabata, Z.-I., Knowler, D. J., Leveque, C., et al. (2005). Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges. UK: Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Dudley, N. (Ed.). (2008). Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Gross National Happiness Commission. (2013). SAARC DEVELOPMENT GOALS: Country Report, BHUTAN. Thimphu, Bhutan: Gross National Happiness Commission.

Heino, J., Virkkala, R., & Toivonen, H. (2008). Climate change and freshwater biodiversity:detected patterns, future trends and adaptations in northern regions. Finland: University of Oulu.

Lawrence, D. J., Larson, E. R., liermann, C. A., Mims, M. C., Pool, T. K., & Olden, J. D. (2011). National parks as protected areas for U.S. freshwater fish diversity. USA: School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Box 355020, Seattle, WA 98195.

Nel, J. L., Roux, D., Maree, G., Kleynhans, C., Moolman, J., & Reyers, B. (2007). Rivers in peril inside and outside protected areas: a systematic approach to conservation assessment of river ecosystems. Diversity and Distributions, 13, 341–352.

Ricciardi, A., & Rasmussen, J. B. (1999). Extinction rates of North American freshwater fauna. Conservation Biology, 13(5), 1220‐1222.

Royal Socity for Protection of Nature (RSPN). (2014). Royal Socity for Protection of Nature. Retrieved September 2, 2014, from www.rspnbhutan.org: http://www.rspnbhutan.org/programs/environment-education/watershed-management.html

Stiassny, M. L. (2002). Conservation of freshwater fish biodiversity: the knowledge impediment. Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft fur Ichthyologie 3, 7–18.

Thomas, C. D., Cameron, A., Green, R. E., Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L. J., & Collinghm, Y. C. (2004). Extinction risk from climate change. Nature 427, 145–148.

United Nations Environment Programme - World Conservation Monitoring Centre. (2008). State of the world’s protected areas: an annual review of. Cambridge, United Kingdom: United Nations Environment Programme ‐ World Conservation Monitoring Centre.

Vorosmarty, C. M. (2010). Global threats to human water security and river biodiversity. Nature 467, 555–561.

Wangchuck Centennial Park (WCP), University of Calcutta (UoC) & WWF Bhutan. (2012). Preliminary report on Freshwater biodiversity in Wangchuck Centennial Park, Bumthang. WCP, UoC and WWF Bhutan.